1. macrophage attraction
stimulate mast cells – so that they can release histamine
activation of compliment

2. initial response to antigen exposure is the primary response; when an antigen appears a second time, it triggers a more extensive and prolonged secondary response; memory B cells do not differentiate into plasma cells unless they are exposed a second time – when they are exposed a second time, lots of Igs are made quickly and in mass amounts

3. immunizations expose us to dead, harmless pieces of virus, stimulating a primary response; booster shots are for memory cells; the immunization works because it’s the 2^nd response that prevents the disease

4. autoimmune disorders occur with the immune system targets the body- a component may have to do with MHC proteins being mistaken for a foreign body; allergies are caused by a hypersensitivity or overreaction to a substance tolerated by most people – this substance is called an allergen – read more about hayfever, for instance

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5. HIV binds to and infects cells with specific membrane proteins called CD4 that is specific to helper T cells and some macrophages (it kills them) – the decrease of immune abilities leads to opportunistic infections

1. this is an immune response mediated by antibodies.

· When a macrophage engulfs and destroys a pathogen, it will present pieces of the pathogen at its surface as antigen/MHC complexes.

· These antigen/MHC complexes are recognized by inactive helper T-cells. The helper T-cells will bind to these antigen/MHC complexes and become activated.

· An activated helper T-cell starts to divide itself – and a portion of the new cells are stored, inactive, as memory helper T-cells.

· The rest of the new helper T-cells then move on to stimulate sensetized B-cells. These B-cells were inactive until they bound an antigen to specific antibodies presetn on their surface.

· The active helper T-cell recognizes and bind the antigen-antibody complex present on the sensetized B-cell. The helper T-cell then activates the B-cell.

· The activated B-cell then starts dividing — a portion of the new cells are stored, inactive, as memory B-cells.

· The rest of the new B-cells start producing and releasing antibodies into the blood – these antibodies are specifi for the antigen that started the whole process.

2. they are for specigic antigens, are inactive, and can wait for decades until they are needed

3. proteins that are made and released by B cells; constant segments form the base of the antibody molecule; variable segments contain the antigen binding sites of the antibody molecule

neutralization – once bound by Ig, pathogens’ activities become limited
agglutination/precipitation – Igs have 2 binding sites and can therefore link may antigens together, limiting their mobility and making it easier to catch them

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1. it is a self-marker; it is made of proteins; if a cell gets infected, the cell will present pieces of the pathogen on its MHC proteins; cytoxic t cells are normall inactive but will recognize and bind to the MHC and is now activated- it will kill the cell and move on

2. When infected by a virus, a cell will display on its surface portions of the virus, bound to their MHC proteins.

· These antigen/MHC complexes act like flags or signals to cytotoxic T-cells.

· Inactive cytotoxic T-cells recognize these antigen/MHC complexes and bind to them.

· This binding then activates the cytotoxic T-cell.

· Active cytotoxic T-cells start dividing – a portion of the new cells are stored, inactive, as memory T-cells.

The rest of the new cytotoxic T-cells patrol the body, and recognize other virus-infected cells displaying the same antigen/MHC complex. These cells are killed by the cytotoxic T-cells. The cytotoxic T-cells then move on to other infected cells, to destroy them too.

1. a compliment protein binds to an antibody molecule attached to a bacterial cell wall or directly to the cell wall- the bound complement protein then interacts with other complement proteins – this attracts phatocytes and stimulates phagocytosis…it will also stimulate inflammation

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2. mast cells release histamine/heparin – this stimulates localized inflammation; the end result of inflammation is the replacement or repair of damaged tissue; purposes of inflammation are to perform a temporary repair at the injury site and prevent the access of additional pathogens, to slow the spread of pathogens, and to mobilize defenses

3. fever occurs when the body temp is > 37 degrees Celsius; circulating proteins call pyrogens can reset the thermostat in the hypothalamus and cause a rise in body temp; pathogens, bacterial toxins, antibodies that are bound to their antigens, and WBCs may act as pyrogens

4. it is what is genetically determined; it is present at birth and has no relation to previous exposure to the antigen involved; ie people don’t get the same diseases as goldfish

5. active immunity is produced by antibodies that develop in response to antigens (immune response) and passive immunity is produced by transfer of antibodies from another person; they are both forms of acquired immunity

6. antigen: any foreign substance that stimulates an immune response; pathogen: any disease-causing invader

1. specific: tailored to specific threats (ie specific antigens); nonspecific: defenses that deny entrance to, or limit the spread of, microorganisms or other environmental agents to the body

2. skin, hair (reduce contact surface and abrasions), sweat glands (constantly flushing the surface, contains lysosomes), internal epithelia (mucus elevator, stomachacid secretions, urine to flush stuff out)

3. a cell that phagocytoses; they patrol tissues while removing cellular debris and responding to invasions by foreign compounds or pathogens

4. the constant monitoring of normal tissues; NK cells

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5. small proteins released by activated lymphocytes, macrophages, and tissue cells infected with viruses; normal cells respond to these interferons by producing proteins that interfere with virus replication inside the cell; they also stimulate macrophages and NK cells

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1. they are situated along lymph vessels – lymph passes through them, they are loaded with lymphocytes, and they may become swollen during an infection; bacteria arrives, gets caught, stimulates an immune response; their job is to filter lymph before it is returned to the venous system (99% of the antigens will be removed)

2. a pink gland that lies behind the sternum that is the site of t-cell production and maturation

3. largest collection of lymphatic tissue in the body; there are lots of b-cells/t-cells/macrophages (ameboids that phagocytose); it also filters the blood itself

4. they are WBCs that may live from 4-20 years; they stay in the lymphoid organs until they are needed; lymphoid stem cells in the marrow either: go to the thymus to mature and divide into T cells, are b cells in the bone that become plasma cells for the production of antibodies, or become NK cells in the bone (natural killers)

5. cytoxic (directly attack foreign body cells or cells attacked by viruses), helper (exposure to antigens), suppressor (suppresses responses of other T and B cells)

6. b cells (bone-marrow derived) can differentiate into plasma cells, the cells that are responsible for making antibody molecules in their membrane; if interstitial fluid contains antigens that will bind to the antibodies, then the b cells are sensitized (antibody-mediated immunity)

7. destroys abnormal cells – continuous monitoring of tissues (immunological surveillance)

8. lymphocyte production; it occurs in the bone marrow and the thymus; hemocytoblasts in the bone marrow produce lymphoid stem cells with two fates – either to stay in the bone and become B or NK cells, or to migrate to the thymus and become T cells

1. increased blood concentration is sense by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus – this triggers ADH release into the blood, which therefore causes retention of water; this lowers blood concentration and increases blood volume/pressure; ADH increases water permeability of the collecting ducts by stimulating the insertion of aquaporins, or water channels, into the plasma membrane

2. see above; more water is retained and urine volume is down

3. it inhibits release of ADH so that urine volume increases, blood volume decreases, and this can lead to dehydration and headaches

4. it is in the cells in the walls of the arteriole and distal convoluted tubule; see diagram #3

5. the lymph vessels are associated with the blood vascular system and include lymphatic capillaries, larger vessels, and the thoracic duct – the vessel that returns fluid back into the blood vascular system

6. lymph is very similar to blood plasma – water, ions, nutrients, wastes, antigens (anything foreign to the body); it comes from peripheral tissues after blood pressure has pushed water out of the blood to the tissues (I think)

7. return fluid to the blood, produce/maintain lymphocytes (WBCs) to take care of invaders before they spread, and for transport of some nutrients and hormones

8. they are associated with epithelia facing the environment (like the GI tract and respiratory system); they have lots of connective tissue and lymphocytes but are not surrounded by a capsule; the tonsils and appendix have lots of lymphoid nodules and, when infected, can lead to tonsillitis and appendicitis

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9. spleen, thymus, lymph nodes

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1. no idea

2. the ascending limb is impermeable to water and solutes, so it actively transports sodium and chloride out of the tubular fluid; the interstitial fluid is again high in [solute], so because the descending limb is permeable to water, water moves into the interstitial fluid due to osmosis

3. they are the capillaries that surround the nephron and are able to capture all of the water, ions and nutrients that’s being let back out into the interstitial fluid

4. it is important for the active transport (secretion) of ions, protons, HCO3-, and waste; it increases protons in the blood, so it will therefore increase pH in the blood; this all happens through specific pumps and specific exchangers

5. renal pyramids are the organizations of the medulla (urine production occurs a lot here); the renal capsule is the tough, fibrous covering of the kidney; the renal pelvis is the big funnel where all the contents of the collecting duct are then sent to the ureter

6. the cortex of the kidney does not have a high ion concentration, while the medulla does; this is maintained by ?

7. urea (breakdown of ammonia from amino acids), creatinine (breakdown of creatine phosphate, a high energy compound used in muscle contraction), uric acid (breakdown and recycling of RNA)

1. the hydrogen ions that diffuse through hydrogen ion channels back into the matrix yield a kinetic energy that is sued to attach a phosphate group to an ADP à making ATP

2. blood volume regulation (blood pressure), ion concentration, pH of blood, conserving nutrients, eliminating wastes

3. per day: urination (1200 ml), skin (750 ml), breathing (400 ml), feces (150 ml)

4. filtration: take everything out of the blood (forming a filtrate), selective reabsorption: put all the good stuff back, secretion: secrete, if necessary, extra wastes

5. this is what the nephron is made of – living cells forming a blind-ended tube that faces the environment

6. five main parts are the renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct; nephrons exist in the renal cortex but extend into the medulla

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7. blood pressure in the capillaries of the glomerulus squeeze out all the small materials in the blood as well as a lot of fluid; only 10% of the blood is carried out to make filtrate – the filtrate may contain ions, water, and nutrients as well as wastes, toxins, and drugs

8. see above

9. this is where selective reabsorption occurs; there are specific transporters for glucose, amino acids, and other nutrients as well as Na, Ca, K, Mg, etc. to reabsorbed and sent into the interstitial fluid; therefore, [solute] is greater outside the cell, water moves out by osmosis, and volume of tubular fluid decreases

Study Guide for Test 5

1. used as fuel for the generation of ATP or as building materials for cellular repair, maintenance and growth
2. a series of enzymes that convert a substrate in a step-wise fashion, passing each subsequent product to the next enzyme in the pathway
3. glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, TCA cycle occurs in the mitochondria
4. glucose (6-C) sugar is spilt into 2 3-C pyruvic acids; a tiny bit of ATP is produced
5. pyruvate is sent to the mitochondria where it is stripped of its carbons one by one; as the carbons are liberated, they bond with oxygen to make CO2; this CO2 diffuses out of the mitochondria and will eventually be breathed out
6. yes; everything is reversible based on what is available and what we need; see diagram #1
7. when Cs are stripped, the electron bonds that were holding them exert a lot of energy and are transported to the electron transport chain (a series of proteins and organic molecules in the mitochondrial membrane that pass electrons along); the final electron acceptor is oxygen, where water is produced; as it passes an electron along, the electron transport chain moves protons (H+) into the mitochondrial membrane where protons accumulate; this accumulation of protons would be likely to diffuse across the membrane again because of a gradient; see diagram #2
8. What is it about Balrogs and their incredible powers?